Parent exposure to adverse childhood experiences (ACEs) and experiences of discrimination (EOD) have been separately shown to not only harm parents’ own health but their children’s health, too. ACEs and EOD are linked to each other through their effects on the groups of people exposed to them; those who experience ACEs are more likely to be exposed to EOD. To effectively study the joint effects of ACEs and EOD on the well-being of mothers and their children, Children’s HealthWatch examined the associations of maternal ACEs and EOD with mothers’ and their children’s health, as well as with household-level material hardships. Research demonstrates that material hardships are linked to significantly worse mental and physical health outcomes across the lifespan.
1,692 mothers of children under 4 years old across 4 US cities were interviewed about their exposure to ACEs and EOD, their health, the health of their children, and household material hardship. They were asked if they had experienced any of ten adverse childhood experiences before the age of 18. They were also asked to report on the frequency of experiencing discrimination related to race, ethnicity, or color across 11 different settings, including at work and school, or when getting housing, bank loans, medical treatment, and more. Finally, mothers were asked to report on their own health and the health of their children and whether they experienced household material hardships (food insecurity, housing instability, energy insecurity, or healthcare hardships).
High maternal ACEs and EOD were each associated with a higher number of household hardships. Compared to being hardship-free, high maternal ACEs, high maternal EOD, and high maternal combined ACE-EOD were all associated with over four times higher odds of having at least two household hardships.
Maternal physical and mental health was measured and grouped into three categories: 1. good physical and mental health (both), 2. good physical/poor mental health or poor physical/good mental health (either physical or mental), and 3. poor physical and mental health (neither).
High maternal ACEs, EOD, and ACE-EOD were all associated with a lower prevalence of good maternal health, as expected. The prevalence of good maternal health was 34% lower for high ACEs, 19% lower for high maternal EOD, and 23% lower for high maternal ACE-EOD. High maternal EOD was also associated with a higher prevalence of mothers having concerns about their child’s development.
Mothers who had experienced high ACEs or EOD reported more household hardships and were less likely to report they were in good health than mothers who had not had these negative experiences. ACEs and EOD can be conceptualized as related manifestations of social injustices. Race and class are intertwined in the US in a way that compounds inequities over time and increases risks for adversities among people from minoritized groups. Solutions to combat the harmful effects of ACEs and EOD should therefore be similarly intertwined to target racial and class inequities.
Given the results of the study, it is essential that programs to alleviate material hardships also explicitly focus on equity to address (or better-solve) structural injustices. Reducing these material household hardships and structural injustices will reduce harm from being passed from one generation to the next, helping both parents and children now, as well as future generations. Ensuring all children are able to reach their full health and development potential is crucial for them to succeed academically, become productive members of society, and live fulfilling lives. Equity-focused policies are necessary to adequately support family and child health across the US. Examples of these kinds of policies include:
- Direct cash, like the expanded Child Tax Credit and Earned Income Tax Credit
- Housing supports (both production and subsidy)
- SNAP, WIC, and other nutrition assistance programs
- Making existing programs more accessible (generally reducing admin barriers and also extending to immigrant families and kids)